The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Essay

The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Chloroplastic Genome Instead Of The Nuclear Genome - Essay Example Another batch of DNA was treated in a likewise manner, except that nucleotides containing thymine were added instead of adenine. (Avril, 187-94) When these two samples of DNA were mixed, the complementary "tails" of A- and T-bearing nucleotides became joined by hydrogen bonding. This combined the once separate fragments into long, interconnected chains. DNA ligase was then added to form bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups. The two DNA strands were now one. It was certainly intriguing that one could now cut up DNA into unpredictable heterogeneous fragments and randomly stitch them back together. However, for further insights into the organization of DNA and its genes -- that is, the determination of precise nucleotide sequencesvery specific nucleases would have to be found. The prevailing opinion was that such specific DNA-cutting capability did not exist in nature. The only clue to the possibility that more specific nucleases might exist came from observations beginning as early as 1953 that when DNA molecules from E. coli were introduced into another slightly different form of E. coli they seldom functioned genetically. They were quickly broken down into smaller fragments. This apparently was part of a system that had evolved in bacteria to protect them against the entrance of foreign DNA. In addition to all of the other more obvious forms of competition in nature, there is a constant invisible struggle played out in the microscopic world, in this case between bacteria and bacteriophages. Darwin's natural selection is recreated here on a minute scale. (David, 131-44) First, bacteria can be grown under controlled conditions, rapidly and in enormous numbers. Overnight, a few cells will multiply into literally billions. It is very important to understand that a bacterial cell ordinarily reproduces simply by copying itself. Assuming that no mutations occur in the cells, all the descendants of that one cell are identical. Such a population of cells originating from a single cell is termed a "clone" and the process of producing that clone is referred to as "cloning" the cell. The DNA in a typical bacterial cell exists in two forms. One is the single bacterial chromosome which, unlike the chromosomes in our cells, is in the form of a circular molecule. The DNA of all other organisms can be likened to a long string. In bacteria, the ends of the string are joined, forming a circle. In addition to the DNA in the bacterial chromosome, DNA also occurs in bacteria in the form of plasmids. These, like the bacterial chromosome, are also circular DNA molecules, but much smaller. When the bacterial cell divides, the bacterial chromosome replicates and one chromosome is passed on to the new cell. Likewise, each of the plasmids replicate and half are delivered to the next generation. The plasmids are unique, independent, self-replicating DNA molecules which can exist only within the living bacterial cell. Plasmids can easily be isolated from bacteria by breaking open the cells with enzymes which break down the cell wall. The resulting mix is centrifuged.The heavier chromosomal DNA, termed "genomic" DNA, as well as cell fragments will go to the

Project Management - planning, conduct, administering, and closing Essay

Project Management - planning, conduct, administering, and closing supply chains [sap5] - Essay Example There are companies that successfully manage internal aspects of their supply chain plan. However, external issues create a greater problem, specifically for  small businesses (Kouvelis, Chambers and Wang, 2006). Small firms have smaller network of  suppliers by building relationships and increasing efficiency hence lowering risk. Ordinarily, certain industries experience higher  supply chain  risks. For instance, pharmaceutical and food companies have strong foundation and understanding of strategy for safeguarding against supply chain problems and interruptions. Effective strategies on supply chain management improve aspects of business like operations and customer service. Code of Conduct Responsibility for people and the environment affects supply chain operations. The role of supply chain includes verifying compliance, making demands, and creating long-term relationships with suppliers (Tyndall, 2004). Moreover, it has to support efforts for sustainable improvements. Cod e of Conduct forms the fundamentals of efforts for improving work environment and working conditions for manufactured products. The code comprises demands pertaining environmental impacts and human rights targeting operations, suppliers and manufacturers. The Code of conduct requirements are derived from the Rights of the Child and the UN Declaration on Human Rights. All manufacturers and suppliers should ratify the Code of Conduct so as to be part of the supply chain. The responsibility of Suppliers is in ensuring that their own manufacturers and suppliers adhere to the Code (Kouvelis, Chambers and Wang, 2006). Manufacturers and Suppliers who cannot or will not sign the Code or live up to organizational needs may not be allowed business. The Code requirements include prohibition of child or forced labour, non discrimination based on personal characteristics or beliefs. Workplace health and safety should be prioritized alongside safe and correct handling of waste and hazardous subst ances. Ultimately, the working conditions must be acceptable. Administering Supply Chain Administering supply chain requires performance of cost-to-serve analysis and regular demand. Fundamentals of segmentation are based on profitability of customers, products and demand dynamics. This analysis gives the required information meant to tailor supply chain policies and service concessions meant to raise the overall profitability of the portfolio. The change in the dynamics of demand and profitability in today's quickly changing business landscape has institutionalized a standard cadence. In the recent past, demand has been regarded as a single requirement to reactions of supply chain. Today, demand signals emanates from forecasts, orders, and safety stock coming from different channels such as Web, retail, enterprise and distributors (Kouvelis, Chambers and Wang, 2006). Furthermore, demand signals originate from different customer types where large, highly profitably customers are com pared to small, unprofitable customers. Besides, diverse customers have different fulfilling relationships depending on the service needed, the customer volume and profitability, and customer support channels. One of the problems facing supply chain managers is the dynamics of supply chain cost structures. There is a greater fluctuation on fuel costs, labor costs, and currency exchange rates for low-cost countries. Profitable sourcing strategies will change to